Directions

Towards the Formulation of a Language Policy for
Pacific Preschools: A Survey of Languge Use
by Parents and Teachers
Gweneth Deverell
Since the Pacific Preschool Council was established in 1980, it has been
committed to providing the kind of teacher training that will help
preschools become more culturally and socially appropriate to the
communities they serve rather than mindless copies of schools in more
developed countries. Each community has at least one native language
which is central to its culture and the use of this language in the preschool
has been encouraged. The Council has not, however, seriously addressed
the question of whether English should also be taught. It has known that
in most preschools some attempt is made to teach English, probably
because, since the missionary and colonial era, any institution calling
itself a school would see one of its functions to be the teaching of English.
But the Council has not really known how English was taught throughout
the region nor during how much of each session English was spoken.
More importantly, little consideration has been given to the possible
effect the teaching of English may have on the maintenance and
development of the first languages of our children. Neither has much
thought been given to whether this is the most suitable age for the
children to begin to learn a second language, nor to the most effective
ways for them to learn that language in a preschool setting, if we really
wish them to do so.
This is a report of a preliminary survey I carried out in mainly urban
preschools in seven countries of the region. It can be regarded as a first
step in providing the information needed to help formulate a language
teaching policy. In the research I have been concerned with:
(a) the home language backgrounds of the children in order to find out
who seems to run the greatest risk of having their first language
replaced by English or a hybrid form of their first language and
English;
(b) the assumptions parents and teachers are making about the
advisability of teaching English at this stage, and
(c) in a broad way, the manner in which teachers expose children to
English.
73

As a result I have tried to find answers to the following questions:
1. What exposure to their native languages and to English have the
children had in their homes?
2. Which languages do parents want their children to learn at pre-
school?
3. What reasons do parents have for wanting their children to learn
English at preschool?
4. What reasons do parents have for not wanting their children to learn
English at this stage?
5. What reasons do teachers have for teaching English?
6. What languages are teachers using in preschools?
7. When do teachers use English during the school session?
8. What problems are teachers aware of when teaching first languages
and English?
To find answers to these questions two questionnaires were devised and
distributed to 194 teachers and 216 parents in seven countries of the
region. The distribution and collection were carried out by students in the
Teacher Training Programme offered by the Pacific Preschool Council in
association with the University of the South Pacific Extension Services,
Continuing Education programme.
The data gathered from these questionnaires had to be considered in the
light of situational factors which varied from country to country. These
are outlined below:
1. Tonga, Western Samoa, Tuvalu, Kiribati and Nauru each had one
native language which is used at home and in community activities.
In Nauru the majority of the preschools operate as part of the
government education system so that teachers feel constrained to
introduce English as soon as possible in accordance with official
policy. In the other four countries the preschools are not part of the
government education system.
2. In Vanuatu and Solomon Islands a great variety of native languages
are spoken and a Melanesian Pidgin is the lingua franca. English is
also used in this capacity to some extent, but in Vanuatu, a former
British/ French condominium, the Pidgin (Bislama) has been adopted
as the national language. Whereas in Solomon Islands the preschools
are not yet part of the education system, in Vanuatu the preschools
the Council is involved with in Port Vila are sections of government
schools where the teaching of English is encouraged.
3. Fiji is similar to the Melanesian countries in that a number of native
languages are spoken, most notably Fijian and Hindi, but also a
74

number of other Indian, Pacific and Chinese languages. Although
preschools are registered with the Ministry of Education, which
exercises some supervision over them, there is not the same pressure
to teach English as there is in Nauru or in Vanuatu. Nevertheless the
multi-racial composition of many classrooms puts pressure on
teachers to develop a common language for the sake of
communication between children and teachers.
Having considered the data from the questionnaires in the light of the
situations briefly described above, I have suggested areas for further
research and listed a number of important issues to be addressed in
parent and teacher education programmes.
Languages spoken at home
Let us first consider the findings on the languages spoken in the homes of
the children, which are summarised in Table 1. It should be noted that the
percentages have been calculated on the basis of the total number of
questionnaires submitted in any one country and this can be misleading.
In Western Samoa, for example, of the 22 questionnaires answered only
11 were from families where both parents were native Samoan speakers.
Of the remaining 11, eight were from families who had at least one native
English speaking parent. In addition three were from overseas Filipino
families. Similarly in Tonga, of the eight families where English was
spoken or where English and Tongan were spoken, in four cases at least
one parent was a native English speaker. In other words, although Table 1
gives a complete picture of the languages spoken in urban preschoolers'
homes, it is somewhat overweighted by the number of overseas children
represented. Hence Table 2 is also included to show the extent to which
local languages are still spoken at home by local people.
Apart from indicating the presence in our urban preschools of a group of
native English speakers whose needs must be catered for and who may be
regarded as potential teachers of their fellow students, Tables 1 and 2
suggest several conclusions. It is pleasing to see that, except in Vanuatu,
the great majority of local children can be expected to come to school
speaking their native language. It cannot be assumed of course that this
language is, as yet, fully developed, but if it continues to be used in the
preschool and in the home there is a good chance that it will be
maintained. In Samoa, Tonga, Tuvalu and Fiji, however, there are small
75

Table 1
Languages Spoken in the Homes of Preschool Children
Li+E Bislama Bislama+Li Bislama+E
Filipino
Samoa
41%
13.6%
31.8% 13.6%
Tonga
66.7%
25%
8.3%
Kiribati
100%
Tuvalu
80%
20%
Nauru
93.3%
6.7%
Vanuatu
23.8%
33.3%
14.3% 23.8%
Solomon Is. 100%
Fiji
62.6%
23.4%
14%
Li = first
language
E = English
Table 2
Languages Spoken in the Homes of Speakers of Local Native Languages
Language
Percentage of speakers
Samoan
81.8
Tongan
80
Kiribati language
100
Tuvaluan
80
Nauruan
93.3
Vanuatu local language
38.5
Solomon Is. local language
100
Fijian
92
Hindi
76
but significant groups of children who have heard both their own
language and English spoken at home. Being at a stage when they are
learning 'language' rather than distinguishing between languages they
may be mixing the two. This is particularly likely in the 88% of cases
where at least one parent speaks both languages so that they are not
clearly separated for the child. (Unfortunately we do not have information
about whether parents regularly address the child in one or both of the
languages.) It seems that this group of children in the four countries
mentioned are most vulnerable to whatever language input they receive at
preschool. There is still a chance that their native languages can be
developed, but there is also a possibility that English may become
dominant. There is also a strong possibility, particularly if they are
76

exposed to such a variety of speech outside the preschool and home, that
these children are speaking a hybrid version of their own language and
English. If this variety of speech is widely used in a community,
moreover, we are likely to see much more rapid change in the forms of
native languages than we would probably wish.
The majority of urban children studied in Vanuatu do not appear to have
much chance to maintain or even to learn the native language of their
parents. Only 38% are hearing these languages spoken at home and about
5% he.ar their own language and Bislama. Moreover, because the teacher
is faced with children from many different islands all speaking different
native languages, only one of which will be her own, it is an almost
impossible task for her to develop the native languages of her students.
Added to this is the difficulty she has in teaching English to children who
already speak Bislama. They will tend to understand a good deal of what
she says in English and may not be challenged to figure out how this new
language works and to try to use it in the same way as a child who had
never heard English or Bislama before might do.
Languages parents want children to learn
Having identified those groups of children who appear to be at greatest
risk of losing their native languages, let us examine what languages
parents would like taught at preschool (Table 3) and to what extent
parents' wishes relate to the actual practice of the teachers (Table 4).
It appears that very few parents anywhere in the region, except Solomon
Islands, where our sample was very small, expect that only the native
language will be taught. Teachers who wish to teach only the native
language will have a big parent education job ahead of them. In practice,
however, it is clear that even fewer teachers teach only the first language.
How and when teachers speak English
It would seem that those children who are at risk of losing their first
language on entering the preschool are unlikely to have it become
dominant or to have its maintenance greatly encouraged. To get a clearer
picture, however, it is necessary to find out how and when English is
being used during the preschool session. Is there the same kind of mixing
77

Table 3
Languages Parents Want Taught at Preschool
Lj only
L, + E
E only
E + Bis
L, + E
French
E +
+ Bis
French
Tonga
8.3%
87.5%
4.2%
Kiribati
85.7%
14.3%
Tuvalu*
80%
6.7%
Vanuatu
4.8%
61.9%
9.5%
9.5%
4.8%
9.5%
Nauru
66.7%
33.3%
Solomon Is.
40%**
20%
Fiji***
77.57%
21.5%
Samoa
4.5%
54.5%
41%
13.3% no opinion
40% whatever the community thinks best
*.93% no opinion
Table 4
Languages Used in Preschools
L only
L, + E
E only
Other combination
Tonga
100%
Kiribati
100%
Tuvalu
100%
Vanuatu
10%
5%
85%
Nauru
73.4%
13.3%
13.3%
Solomon Is.
100%
Fiji
.93%
75.7%
8.4%
15.8%
Samoa
7.1%
92.9%
of languages as they experience at home or are the languages separated
and identified with particular teachers or particular lessons? Table 5
throws some light on this subject. Children in Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu
who are hearing both the L1 and English at home will be exposed to
the L1 for the greater part of the school day. It is true that 21% of the
Samoan teachers are translating from Samoan to English, but the
majority are committed to developing the Samoan language and report
that the special English lesson is usually only 15 minutes long and in some
schools takes place only twice a week. In Fiji where teachers have to cope
with a much more complex situation, with the children in the classroom
78

speaking several different native languages, the risk remains high that
children will be hearing a mixture of two languages neither of which is
usually specific to a person or a lesson. Indeed they may not hear their
own language spoken, except imperfectly by other children, if their own
native language is different from their teachers'. Particular notice should
also be taken of the fact that nearly fifty percent of the teachers in Fiji are
continuously translating from one language to the other, and a number of
those who use English only in the special lesson say that they translate at
this time. For example, if they tell a story or teach colours or shapes they
do so in two languages.
Table 5
When Teachers Use English
All time
All time with
In a special
Not
Used for
All time to
to all
translation
lesson
used
Combined
L1 Eng*
children
Class
Samoa
21.4%
71.4%.
7.2%
42.8%
Tonga
100%
10%
Kiribati
100%
Tuvalu
9.1%
90.9%
Nauru
20%
40%
40%
20%
Vanuatu
57.1%
9.5%
28.6%
4.8%
Solomon Is.
100%
Fiji
7.5%
48.6%
29.9%
2.8%
7.5%
3.7%
*L] Eng = First language is English
To conclude this section it may be stated that possible loss of the native
languages in Tonga and Samoa could well be prevented by their almost
exclusive use in the preschool, particularly as they are widely used in the
community and between siblings. In Vanuatu it is difficult for the teacher
to do anything to compensate for the loss, but in Fiji some help could be
given even in a multiracial school if it were possible to ensure that
preschools were staffed by both Hindi and Fijian speaking teachers. It
also seems that Fiji may be an appropriate place to carry out some
longitudinal studies of children's first language maintenance comparing
different home language backgrounds and preschools were English is
used in varying degrees.
Let us now consider those children who have been exposed only to their
79

native languages at h o m e and the effect preschool language use is likely
to have on them. We must bear in mind that when they enter the
preschool, or even when they leave it, their language is not fully
developed. There is a possibility of it being replaced by English or a
hybrid version of English and their own language. We must also
recognize a great variety of individual differences between the children in
their language learning capabilities and their experiences outside the
school and home. All 1 can do is to suggest some general trends. If
English is being spoken at all times to all children in such a way that it is
comprehensible to them, they may well develop a h o m e / s c h o o l bilingual-
ism (See Table 5). It is only in V a n u a t u , however, that many teachers use
English all the time to all children (57%). This seems to be linked with the
problem in teaching English mentioned most frequently by teachers, the
difficulty of communicating (See Table 9).
If, on the other hand, English is used all the time but with translation into
the native language, the children might well ignore the English as they
will be able to manage quite well without exerting themselves to
understand it. Merrill Swain,1 quoting the work of Lily Wong Fillmore,
makes the following relevant comments:
. . . children apparently learn to ignore the language they do not understand.
If the same, or related, message is typically given in both languages then
there is no motivation to try to figure out what is being said in English. Lilly
Wong Fillmore (1980)2 describing video-tapes of children in a classroom
where a concurrent translation was used, reports the students "alternatively
being attentive and inattentive as the teachers switch between languages in
their lessons. During the time the language they do not understand is being
spoken, the students simply stop listening" (p.29).
As nearly 50% of Fiji teachers and 4 0 % in N a u r u do translate this would
be a useful topic to include in teacher education in the future. Perhaps the
best we can say for the m e t h o d is t h a t it poses little threat to the
maintenance of the child's first language, but it involves a lot of wasted
energy for the teacher. And sympathy must be felt for the teacher in both
Fiji and Nauru. In Fiji she is trying to develop one c o m m o n language in
which she can teach both Fijian and Hindi speaking children and others,
and in which the children can communicate with each other. In Nauru the
teacher feels very strongly the pressure of the Education Department
policy to use English, as evidenced by statements like the following:
80

"1 am not doing my job if I teach Nauruan. My duty is to teach them
English."
"They need to know more about their second language rather than their own
mother tongue which is born with them."
And yet, when the teacher knows the children do not understand, it is a
natural reaction for her to translate. Again teachers need help with the
methods to introduce English if they feel it must be introduced; and there
are no easy answers to how that should be done.
Use of English in a special lesson seems to be the most favoured choice of
teachers across the region (See Table 5). If children are exposed to
English in this way for the first time, there is a possibility that they will
learn English without it becoming dominant or interfering too much with
the development of their first language. This is more likely to happen if
the English spoken during the lesson is presented in such a way that the
children can grasp towards meaning, with the teacher providing strong
contextual support but not translation. Ideally the English lesson is
taught by a different teacher from the one who speaks to the children in
their own language, or if it must be taught by the same teacher, she
restricts her use of English to this particular lesson. From the present
data we cannot really determine what typically takes place in the English
lesson although a number of teachers say that they translate. Obviously
this is a matter for training and research.
Parent and teacher views on teaching English
We now turn to the question of why it is considered necessary to teach
English in Pacific preschools. Table 6 gives parents' reasons for wanting
their children to learn English.
By far the most popular reason parents have for wanting their children to
learn English at preschool (42%), is for success in education, some
mentioning primary school, others secondary, and still others education
in general. The fact that English is an international language was the
second most common reason given with 20%, and 12.5% gave communi-
cation in the community as a reason. Many respondents gave several
reasons rather than just one. Among the teachers' reasons for using
English (See Table 7), the most popular overall is communication in the
community. If communication with other children, a category not
81

separated out by teachers, were added to the parents' figure for
communication in the community, the result for communication would
be similar for parents and teachers, 22% compared to 24% overall.
However only 19% of the teachers mentioned success in education as the
reason for teaching English, as compared with 42% for parents. It should
also be noted that the figures for communication in the community are
heavily weighted by the total for Fiji where there is practical need for a
lingua franca in everyday, life.
Table 6
Parents' Reasons for Wanting Children to Learn English at Preschool
Samoa Tonga Kiribati Tuvalu
Nauru Vanuatu Solomon
Fiji
Islands
For success in
education
45.4% 20.8% 14.2% 100%
46.6%
57%
20%
38.3%
To communicate
in community
9%
23.3%
To communicate
with other
children
13.6%
4.7%
14.9%
To use the official
language
7.4%
To use an
international
language
33.3%
40%
33.3%
38%
19.6%
To read books/
papers
19%
20%
1.8%
It is own Li
22.7% 12.5%
9.4%
2.8%
Because children
learn fast and
easily
4.5%
5.6%
For future success
4.1%
26.6%
33.3%
19%
20%
4.6%
To use Second
language of
country
8.2%
.9%
To use Li at
home L2 school
1.8%
Parents attended
English-speaking
school
14.2%
To contact other
Pacific Islands
4.7%
82

Table 7
Teachers' Reasons for Using English
Samoa Tonga Kiribati Tuvalu Nauru Vanuatu Solomon Fiji
Islands
For success in
education
14.2% 20%
33.3% 80%
9.3%
For
communication
in community
44.8
To use an
international
language
21.4% 10%
9% 20% 5%
1.8%
To read books/
papers
Because young
learn easily
7.1%
20%
13.3%
10%
3.6%
It is own Li for
some
50%
5.6%
To use L2 of
country
60%
33.3%
5%
5.6%
For future success
5%
4.6%
Parents want it
14.2% 25%
3.6%
To communicate
with teacher
5.6%
To learn it
properly
4.6%
It is official policy
40% 10%
7.2%
Most speak it
6.5%
To introduce it
25% 60% 9%
It is Li of teacher
7.1%
5%
For NES*
children
50%
10%
•NES = Native English Speaker
The interesting thing about the reasons given by both parents and
teachers is the underlying, unstated assumption that to begin the process
of learning English at the preschool age is more likely to bring success. A
few parents, however, in Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands and
Fiji gave reasons for not wishing English to be taught (see Table 8). The
strongest reasons were expressed by Tongan and Solomon Island parents
who fear a loss of their children's ability to speak their native language. In
indicating the disadvantages and problems they see in teaching English, a
small number of teachers in Nauru and Fiji mentioned the possibility of
83

the native language being lost. On the whole, however, it seems that
neither parents nor teachers have much awareness of the effect the
teaching of English could have on the maintenance of native languages.
Neither do they mention the mixing of languages that is likely to happen
nor do they entertain the possibility that it would be better to leave the
teaching of English until later, except in a very few cases. The possibility
that the introduction of English at preschool age could, in some cases,
have an adverse effect on the cognitive growth and future educational
success of the child was not suggested either, although some research
evidence supports this view (Cummins, 1981).3
Table 8
Reasons Parents Do Not Want English Taught at Preschool
Tonga
Tuvalu Vanuatu Solomon
Fiji
Islands
Loss of Li
37.5%
6.6%
9.4%
40%
6.5%
Loss of customs
6.6%
4.7%
Li not fully developed
20.8%
4.7%
1.4%
Too young
40%
Parents can't speak it
10.4%
Grandparents can't speak it
12.5%
Table 9
Disadvantages and Problems Teachers See in Using English in Preschool
Samoa Tonga Kiribati Tuvalu
Nauru Vanuatu Solomon
Fiji
Islands
Loss of L]
13.3%
13%
Loss of customs
15%
2.8%
Li not fully
developed
30%
100%
1.9%
Hard to
communicate
50%
25%
60%
9%
33.3%
40%
100%
29.9%
Lack materials
18%
6.6%
1.9%
Lack training
36.3%
2.8%
Not used at home 28.5%
45%
27%
13.3%
40%
8.4%
Children lose
interest
7.1%
5%
13.3%
4.6%
Learning slow
13.3%
25%
5.6%
Pronunciation
difficulties
27%
6.6%
1.9%
Hard when young
10%
Not teacher's L1
5%
36.3%
4.6%
84

I shall now make some suggestions about areas for specific research and
list the issues which I feel should be addressed in teacher and parent
education programmes.
Research: I would recommend that the Pacific Preschool Council:
1. Carry out longitudinal studies of the native language development of
groups of preschool children in Fiji and Vanuatu, since these are the
two countries in which children seem to be most likely to lose their
first language. Children from homes where both their native language
and English are addressed to them indiscriminately should be studied
in preschools where English is spoken all the time, all the time with
translation, and during a special lesson. The results should be
compared.
2. Observe what typically goes on in the special English lesson in a
number of countries and find out how effective the methods are over
a period of time.
Teacher and parent education: I suggest that the following issues be
addressed in the light of the findings of this introductory study and of
current research on second language acquisition in children:
1. The danger of children losing their native language and having it
replaced either by English or by a hybrid version of their own
language and English.
2. The possibility of the widespread use of the hybrid language bringing
about rapid changes in the native language.
3. The possible social and cognitive effects on a child of introducing
English before the first language is well established and how these
might influence his overall educational progress.
4. The most appropriate age at which English might be introduced.
5. If English is officially required, as in Nauru and Vanuatu, or is a
social necessity as in Fiji, the most effective way of introducing it at
this age.
6. The desirability of English being spoken without translation; during
a particular lesson; and if possible, by a particular teacher who
engages the child's active cognitive and often physical involvement.
7. The possibility of native English speakers among the children
spontaneously becoming teachers.
85

Notes
1. Merrill Swain (1982) Billingualism Without Tears. TESOL Conference.
2. Lily Wong Fillmore (1980) Language Learning through Bilingual Instruction.
Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley.
3. James Cummins (1981) The Role of Primary Language Development in
Promoting Educational Success for Language Minority Students.'Schooling
and Language Minority Students.
State of California, Department of
Education.
86