Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
Knowledge, Schooling and Post-school Opportunities: an
exploration of I-Kiribati parents’ perceptions of secondary
education
Greg Burnett
Introduction
As is the case in most other Pacific Islands, formal education in
Kiribati is based on an imported, predominantly western model.
This form of education was instigated initially by Christian
missionaries and then, in the early 1900s, by the British colonial
administrators in order to prepare an elite few for administrative
jobs in the colony. On the eve of the new millenium, this form of
education is still the norm but has been made available to more
students, despite very little growth in the economy, in order to
provide employment for students when they leave school. The
parents, above all others, desire this form of secondary education
for their children, often at the expense of other forms of knowledge,
such as vocational and cultural knowledge.
This article reports on a study of the range of aspirations for
knowledge, schooling and post-school opportunities held by I-
Kiribati parents for their secondary school aged children. In
particular, the study explores which aspects of knowledge, both
I-Kiribati and western, parents perceive as most important for
their children to possess. It also examines the role of the secondary
school and the body of knowledge that parents perceive the school
should be responsible for transmitting to their children.
Furthermore, the study seeks to establish parents’ post-school
aspirations and expectations as far as employment and life chances
for their children are concerned.
The study takes as its main premise the desire by I-Kiribati parents
for their children to possess a largely western body of knowledge
through formal schooling for the purposes of gaining cash
employment on completion of secondary schooling. This premise
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
is based on relatively dated material: a 1975 rural and socio-
economic survey (Geddes et al. 1979) and an analysis of the
Community High School experiment in Kiribati in 1980 (Hindson
1982, 1985). Also drawn upon is material published by a
number of commentators (Baba 1991; Teasdale 1985; Kaye
1986) who state that similar aspirations are found among
parents across the Pacific region.
Accompanying the premise that a western body of knowledge
has achieved dominance is the concept of subjugated
knowledges (Foucault 1977, cited in McHoul and Grace
1997:59), that is, in the Kiribati context, knowledge of a cultural
and vocational nature which has been undervalued by I-Kiribati
parents. The desire for the dominant knowledges by I-Kiribati
parents for their children is quite possibly a result of the
perception of the status and comforts that cash employment
can bring compared to the alternative of subsistence village
life (Talu and Tekonnang 1979: 109). Possession of the
dominant knowledges is perceived to greatly increase
employment chances and hence power to a certain degree
(Foucault 1980). A related concept which also sheds some
light on the Kiribati situation is hegemony. Hegemony is the
“ideological/cultural domination of one class by another,
achieved by engineering consensus through controlling the
content of cultural forms and major institutions” (Jary and Jary
1991: 271). In Kiribati, there seems to be a consensus among
education clients for an academic western education, yet clearly
not all benefit from it in terms of cash employment. In 1997
only 45% of primary school leavers were given a place in
secondary school (Tekawa 1998)1 The Report on the 1995
Census of Population (Tiroa 1997) indicates that only 17% of
the population over the age of 15 years were working in the
cash sector in that year.
1 In 1998 a plan was implemented to give all primary school leavers access to
secondary school up to Form 3 level by 2002 (Ministry of Education, Training
and Technology 1998).
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
Methodology
The research was conducted in July 1998. Data was collected
chiefly by structured interview (see Appendix 1 for Interview
Guide), with minor roles assigned to informal interviews and
document collection. Thirty interviews with parents were
conducted with the help of an I-Kiribati research assistant. These
parents had children who were about to commence secondary
school or were currently in secondary school, or who had
recently completed secondary school. Purposive sampling was
done to ensure a broad range of backgrounds among participants
(see Appendix 2) and in order to establish the range of aspirations
existing among I-Kiribati parents. An overall balance was struck
according to the employment status, education background,
rurality, ethnicity, age and gender of participants. Interviews
were recorded in either English or I-Kiribati, transcribed and,
where necessary, translated into English. Transcripts were then
coded according to units of meaning, and analysed.
Results
Participants’ responses reveal a strong desire by parents for
their children to possess an I-Kiribati body of knowledge (see
Table 1). This desire exists in parents from all backgrounds in
the sample. Rurality, education attainment, gender, age or
ethnicity do not appear to play a part in the desire. The body of
knowledge consists of a range of practical skills, the type of
which varies from participant to participant. There exists a
common desire for such skills as toddy cutting, fishing and
weaving. This desire exists even where participants do not
possess the skills themselves. When it comes to identifying
desired I-Kiribati values, participants express a much smaller
range of responses (see Table 2). Respect for others was the
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
most frequent, with the mwaneaba system 2 , family obligations,
the role of girls and the values of the church stated as important by
some.
Table 1: Range and frequency of desired I-Kiribati skills
Skill
Freq. Skill
Freq.
toddy cutting
20
healing
2
fishing
15
sailing/navigating
1
cultivation
10
weather forecasting 1
mat weaving
10
home skills
1
house building
7
cooking
1
canoe building
7
genealogy
1
thatch weaving
3
dancing
1
string making
3
Note: Frequency indicates the number of respondents identifying the skill
as desirable
Table 2: Range and frequency of desired I-Kiribati values
Values
Frequency
respecting others
17
mwaneaba system
5
family obligations
2
behaviour of girls
2
church
1
Note:(as for Table 1)
2 The mwaneaba system refers to a complex web of political, religious, social
and cultural norms, protocol and expectations which govern people’s behaviour
and responsibilities.
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
Perceived benefits in possessing such skills and values fall into two
broad categories (see Table 3). The first category is utilitarian, in
which possession of I-Kiribati knowledge is considered a means of
making money or of enhancing survival, better health or self reli-
ance. The second category is for a more collective purpose where
possession of I-Kiribati knowledge is for a greater cultural identity,
maintenance of culture or the establishment of good relationships
with others.
Table 3: Range and frequency of purposes for possession of
I-Kiribati knowledge
Utilitarian
Freq. Collective
Freq.
survival
9
maintain culture
9
make money
5
identity
3
self-reliance
3
establishment of good
future benefits
2
relationships
1
health benefits
Participant response also reveals a strong desire for a western body
of knowledge (see Table 4). Most participants list school subjects,
indicating a belief that the gaining of western knowledge and the
institution of the school are closely related. The most common
responses are the subjects English and Mathematics. Participants
found great difficulty in identifying desired values (see Table 5) but
a small number of participants reveal a desire for more democratic
parent/child relationships, for critical yet constructive thinking to-
ward decisions made by authorities, for independence from family,
for modes of behaviour linked to Christianity and for the ability to
reason.
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
Table 4: Range and frequency of desired western skills
Skill
Freq. Skill
Freq.
English
15
Accounting
1
Mathematics
12
I-Kiribati literacy
1
Art
1
Religious Instruction 1
Science
6
Industrial Arts
1
Music
1
Political Science
1
Geography
2
Computing
1
History
1
Mechanics
1
No preference
1
Table 5: Range and frequency of desired western values
Value
Freq.
democratic parent/child relationships
3
critical thinking
3
independence from family
2
appropriate behaviour
1
reasoning
1
Reasons given for the possession of such a body of knowledge
(see Table 6) are not solely for purposes of gaining cash employment,
which perhaps contrasts with desires of parents in earlier studies
(Geddes et al. 1979, Hindson 1982, 1985). Other responses closely
related to careers and jobs include reasons of status, qualifications,
access to goods, but also stated were reasons such as enhanced
relationships with others, communication with and understanding
of other cultures, and self growth. It is possible that some changes
in attitude have occurred in the almost twenty years since the
demise of the Community High School scheme in which parents’
desires for cash employment were most clearly articulated (Hindson
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
1982, 1985 and Tata 1980). The harsh realities of finding cash
employment may have forced parents into seeing other benefits of
western knowledge in this time.
Table 6: Range and frequency of perceived benefits in possessing
western knowledge
Utilitarian
Freq. Collective
Freq.
career
12
communication
5
financial gain
5
coping with change 3
qualifications
3
self-growth
2
status
1
better relationships 2
goods acquisition
1
Participants perceive a range of changes in I-Kiribati culture over
their own lifetimes (see Table 7). These changes reflect a general
westernisation of I-Kiribati society. Almost all changes are in the
area of relationships and include gender roles and marriage, the
role of children and the authority of old men. Other aspects in-
clude the declining use of ill-intended magico-religious practices
and the increasing importance of money.
Table 7: Perceived areas of change in I-Kiribati culture and fre-
quency of response
Perceived area of change
Freq.
magico-religious practices
4
gender roles
3
children’s roles
2
money
2
relationships
2
mwaneaba
1
diet
1
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
Most participants desire the main role of the school to be
transmission of a western body of knowledge but they are willing
to include knowledge of an I-Kiribati nature as long as the
transmission of the former is seen to have priority. Only one
participant disagrees with the inclusion of any I-Kiribati content
at all. In some cases, participants see the family as the chief
means by which I-Kiribati knowledge is to be transmitted and
are only willing to give such knowledge a place in formal schooling
where parents are not able to teach children themselves.
As far as perception of what schools are actually doing with
regard to I-Kiribati knowledge, responses indicate a very superficial
treatment of that knowledge in the curriculum. Though
communication between school and home is limited due to
distance, responses from school officials confirm the superficial
treatment. Participants cited Cultural Day, Kiribati Studies and
the presence of visiting experts as the means by which schools
encourage I-Kiribati knowledge. Possibly, many participant
responses concerning the contribution of school to cultural
breakdown lack validity. Management of students in boarding
schools is blamed for a range of problems such as improper
hairstyle, bad manners, inappropriate male-female relationships
and lack of punctuality. However, these perceived problems also
exist in the general urban community of South Tarawa. Perhaps
most valid are the responses from education officials who give
several structural aspects of the school system, such as an
administration unsympathetic to non-academic knowledge in the
curriculum and a teaching force untrained in cultural knowledge
and its transmission, as ways in which schools contribute to
cultural breakdown.
The study also reveals the problematic nature of including more
I-Kiribati knowledge in the curriculum as it conflicts with the
concept of secret family knowledge and the “tradition of silence”
(Rennie 1981). Furthermore, locating I-Kiribati people skilled
and willing to share knowledge with students on a voluntary
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
basis is difficult, as payment for services places greater strain on
an already stretched education budget.
Participant response with regard to post-school life chances reveals
an aspiration chiefly for a place in cash employment. Two
participants express their aspirations in terms of working for the
church or in terms of behaviour. In only some responses is the job
type specified, and in these cases they are jobs requiring high levels
of training. From these responses it is clear that parents see that
the prime role of the schools is to prepare students for employment
in the cash sector. The benefits expressed earlier with regard to
possessing a western body of knowledge, that is, communication
and understanding of other cultures, must be seen as a secondary
role of formal schooling.
Participants firmly believe that their aspirations will reach fruition if
they, the parents, provide financially for their children’s schooling
needs. Aspirations will also be fulfilled if the children are obedient
and work hard at their studies. Participants do not see the state of
the economy or the government as playing any part in their children’s
post school life chances.
Discussion
This study draws on Foucault’s notion of dominant and subjugated
knowledges in an attempt to explore parents’ perceptions of various
knowledges transmitted through formal and informal learning
systems in Kiribati. The study reveals parents’ perception of the
school’s main role to be that of transmitting an academic body of
knowledge. This finding generally concurs with Geddes et al. (1979)
and Hindson (1982, 1985). Both the previous studies reveal a
similar desire among parents. Western knowledge, therefore, remains
a dominant knowledge as far as parents and the school are
concerned. Accompanying a dominant knowledge is a set of
knowledges that are perceived as less important, or subjugated.
The study reveals that I-Kiribati knowledge is not considered as
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
important as western knowledge. Parents perceive the school to
have a lesser role in transmitting it. However, the study does
suggest that the level of subjugation is perhaps not as low as in
previous studies. The willingness by most parents in the study
to include it in the formal secondary curriculum and the listing of
a wide range of benefits in possessing I-Kiribati knowledge tend
to support this claim. Furthermore, the listing of non-job benefits
in the possessing of western knowledge suggests a softening of
desire for that body of knowledge.
The study confirms the connection between dominant knowledges
and power. Responses indicate parents perceive a strong link
between the possession of western knowledge and cash em-
ployment. Cash employment leads to a more comfortable lifestyle
and therefore power in those terms.
The study reveals, to some extent, elements of hegemonic
relationships in the present educational structure and parents’
desires for schooling. Responses reveal a widespread desire for
a type of education that, due to economic limitations, will not
achieve for all parents and their children their aspirations for
employment. Parents do not modify aspirations to match the
reality of few employment opportunities. Neither are aspirations
modified by the fact that many students are forced out of
secondary school at various stages because the system is not
equipped to enroll all students to the end of secondary schooling.
In general, consent is given to a system by many families that, in
the end, disadvantages them and their children. However, those
who gain the most in the hegemonic relations are not clearly
identified by the study. There are certainly successful products
of the western system of education who have gained positions
where important decisions regarding educational policy and
practice are made. However, in Kiribati it is somewhat simplistic
to suggest that these decision-makers carry out their role to
maintain their own positions. In a small Pacific state such as
Kiribati, the local decision-makers are to a large extent at the
mercy of those in positions of power outside of Kiribati. It is felt
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
that those individuals and groups who dictate the nature of the
global market economy and also those involved in overseas aid
are possibly the ‘rulers’ in a wider set of hegemonic relations.
Implications for policy and practice
The study reveals a willingness by parents to talk about their
children’s education. Where secondary schools are separated
from South Tarawa or from a student’s island of origin there are
few means by which home and school communication is possible.
This study recommends that ways be investigated by which
parents can have a greater voice in the curriculum implementation
process of their children’s school. Although parents may have
little opportunity to play a part in the implementation of core
curriculum areas, there are many other areas where parental
influence could be beneficial. For example, student management
in non-classroom hours and extra-curricular activities similar to
but more extensive than the already existing Cultural Day.
At an administrative level there also needs to be a means by
which parents can provide input into curriculum decision making.
This study reveals a desire by parents for a greater amount of I-
Kiribati knowledge to be transmitted through formal schooling.
Perhaps a forum needs to be organised, whereby parents and
other education sector interest groups such as employers, the
churches and aid donors can provide input for curriculum decision-
making.
The study reveals that the present curriculum transmits western
knowledge and I-Kiribati knowledge usually as two separate
entities, each having their own distinct time in the program of
the school. Means need to be explored by which a western
body of knowledge and an I-Kiribati body of knowledge can be
fused in a way similar to that suggested by Teasdale (1998).
For example, the I-Kiribati skill of toddy cutting could be treated
from the viewpoint of botanical science, that is, plant structure
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
and function. Such a curriculum would also possibly further
increase the status of I-Kiribati knowledge, from its present
subjugated position.
The study confirms the importance placed on examinations in
gaining a place in secondary education and maintaining one’s
position in it. The study also reveals how examinations often
dictate the level of importance placed upon certain subjects by
teachers and students. Means need to be devised to ensure
that all learning areas are given equal treatment in the classroom.
Finally, the study reveals an expectation among parents for their
children to gain cash employment. In the light of Kiribati’s limited
economic growth, such expectations seem unrealistic. It is
recommended that national development planning and the role
education has in achieving development plans be communicated
by appropriate means to the community, so that parents and
students can make better-informed choices about schooling and
post-school opportunities. It is possible that the Community
High School scheme of the late 1970s would have won more
support from parents if its goals had been communicated more
clearly.
Further research
This study was preliminary in that its main aim was to derive a
range of perceptions held by I-Kiribati parents on knowledge,
schooling and post-school opportunities. A more comprehensive
study is needed to gauge with accuracy the extent to which the
perception exists in the general population. In particular, a survey
needs to be conducted which incorporates the perception of
outer island dwellers. Furthermore, if the present study does
contribute in any way to debate on appropriate curriculum for
secondary schools in Kiribati, then it would also be useful to
examine the perceptions of others with a stake in education
such as the students themselves, employers, churches and aid
donors.
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
Data revealed during the course of this study suggest that a follow-
up study be done in the areas of ‘secret family knowledge’ and the
perceived barrier that it presents to incorporating a greater level of
I-Kiribati knowledge in the curriculum. It would also be useful to
examine the relevance of maintaining elements of curriculum and
school structure from the colonial period in I-Kiribati history in the
present day secondary school system. Relevance of curriculum
needs to be assessed in relation to the perceived needs of the
various groups in the education sector.
This study focuses mainly on curriculum content and the dominance
of western knowledge. Further research is necessary to assess the
process by which content is transmitted. It is possible that I-Kiribati
knowledge, in particular values and beliefs, may be transmitted to a
much greater extent through teachers’ classroom practice and the
hidden curriculum.
References
Baba, T. (1991) Education in the Small Island States of the South Pacific:
The Changing Role of the School and Its Implications for Higher
Education, in Explorations in Higher Education: A South Pacific
Critique. D.R. Jones, V.L. Meek, and J. Weeks (eds). Centre for
the Study of Higher Education. University of Melbourne. pp.33-
54.
Foucault, M. (1980) Two lectures, in Power/Knowledge – selected
interviews and other writings. C. Gordon (ed.) Harvester.
Wheatsford. New York. pp. 78-108.
Geddes, W.H., A. Chambers, B. Sewell, R. Lawrence, and R. Watters,
(1979) Island On The Line: Team Report , Victoria University.
Wellington.
Hindson, C. (1982) Kiribati: The Search For Educational Direction in a
Pacific Context. Directions 9: 1-11.
Hindson, C. (1985) Post Primary School Non-Academic Alternatives: a
South Pacific study. Comparative Education 12 (2): 135-155.
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
Jary, D. and J. Jary (1991) Collins Dictionary of Sociology, Harper Collins.
Glasgow.
Kaye, T. (1986) Education and Privilege in the South Pacific, Directions
16: 109-117.
McHoul, A. and W. Grace (1997) A Foucault Primer. Melbourne. Melbourne
University Press.
Ministry of Education, Training and Technology (1998) Junior Secondary
Strategic Plan for 1999,2000,2001. Tarawa
Rennie, S. (1981) Katei Ni Kiribati: The Gilbertese Way, Hemisphere. 26
(3): 184-7.
Talu, A. and F.Tekonnang (1979) Fertilisation: Development and Social
Change. In Aspects of History. H. Van Trease, B. MacDonald, A.
Ravuvu and M.T Crocombe (eds) Institute of Pacific Studies. Uni-
versity of the South Pacific. Suva. pp.98-111.
Tata, I. (1980 ) New Policies For Classes 7, 8 and 9 in Kiribati Primary
Schools. Directions 5:26-35.
Teasdale, G.R. (1985) Education For Poverty: The Case of the South Pa-
cific. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Flinders
University Centre for Development Studies.
Teasdale, G.R. (1998) Local and Global Knowledge in Higher Education: a
Search for Complementarity in the Asia-Pacific Region. Interna-
tional Journal For Educational Development 18 ( 6): 501-11.
Tekawa, K. (1998) Digest of Education Statistics 1997, Ministry of Edu-
cation, Training and Technology. Tarawa.
Tiroa, T. (1997) Report on the 1995 Census of Population: Basic Informa-
tion and Tables, Statistics Office, Ministry of Finance. Tarawa.
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
APPENDIX 1
Interview Guide
Questions
1 . What island are you from?
2 . How long have you been on South Tarawa?
3 . For what purpose did you come to South Tarawa?
4 . Would you consider going back? Why or why not?
5 . How many children do you have? What are their age?
6 . Could you describe the sort of schooling you have had?
Knowledge and Skills
1 . Could you list some I-Kiribati knowledge and skills that you
consider important for young people to have these days?
-
skills such as weaving, fishing, etc.
-
knowledge such as the mwaneaba and its katei (customs
and culture)
2 . Why are these things important?
-
why should young people need to know these things?
-
their purpose
-
is there anything that has lost importance?
3 . Could you state some I-Matang (western) knowledge and skills
that you consider important for young people to have these
days?
-
things taught in school
-
ideas
4 . Why are these things important?
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
Schooling
1 . What sort of things do you think schools should be teaching
young people?
-
which of the knowledges?
-
is there anything that the school should not be teaching?
2 . How did you learn the I-Kiribati knowledge and skills that you
have?
3 . In what ways, if any, do schools promote katei?
4 . In what ways, if any, do schools go against katei?
Employment/Life Chances
1 . Given that all things are possible, what would you like to see
your children doing at the end of their schooling?
2 . Do you expect that this will be possible for your children to
achieve? Why or why not?
-
what will make it possible/difficult?
3 . Ask Questions One and Two for each of the children.
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Directions: Journal of Educational Studies Vol. 21 No. 2 Dec. 1999
APPENDIX 2
Demographic data pertaining to sample
_________________________________________________________
Characteristic
Females %
Males %
Total
n = 11
n = 19
n = 30
_________________________________________________________
Age
25-29
67
33
3
30-34
0
100
0
35-39
33
67
3
40-44
40
60
5
45-49
50
50
2
50-54
30
70
10
55-59
50
50
2
60-64
25
75
4
65-69
0
100
1
_________________________________________________________
Religion
K.P.C.1
44
56
18
Catholic
16
84
6
Other
32
68
6
_________________________________________________________
Rurality
Rural
39
61
18
Urban
33
67
12
_________________________________________________________
Employment
White collar 33
67
15
Blue collar
50
50
2
Village or
Home Duties 38
62
13
_________________________________________________________
Ethnicity
I-Kiribati
10
15
25
Tuvaluan
1
4
5
_________________________________________________________
1Kiribati Protestant Church
99
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